Perspective, as defined by the Encyclopedia Britannica is the “method of graphically depicting three-dimensional objects and spatial relationships on a two-dimensional plane or on a plane that is shallower than the original (for example, in flat relief).” [Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "perspective". Encyclopedia Britannica, 31 Jul. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/art/perspective-art. Accessed 19 August 2023.]
Many examples of Palaeolithic art, the “earliest known art making period in the history of human development” [The Art Story, “Overview of Cave art”, https://www.theartstory.org/movement/cave-art ], such as the “Panel of Horses” found in the Chauvet cave, have been shown to use conceptual forms of perspective utilizing the “contours in the cave wall,[to] sometimes to suggest movement” [James C. Harris MD, “Chauvet Cave: The Panel of Horses”, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/1107262, Sept 2011].
Perceptual Perspective
Early artworks didn’t have a uniformly agreed method of depicting perspective. As such, artworks would be created based on the individual artist’s own perception of the subject of the art. Artists would “depict objects and surroundings independently of one another—as they are known to be, rather than as they are seen to be—and from the directions that best present their most characteristic features.” [Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "perspective". Encyclopedia Britannica, 31 Jul. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/art/perspective-art. Accessed 19 August 2023.]
This resulted in quite stylistic interpretations as the artist would often accentuate the most characteristic features of objects which would be placed in a scene with next to no sense of depth.
The image below "Bonaventura Berlinghiere, Madonna and Child with Saints and Crucifixion,1260-70" is a great example of how artists would focus solely on the objects rather than the spaces between the objects. It creates a very flat and 2 dimensional image. We can see that, despite the subjects facing head on, the feet of the subjects are painted as if seen from the perspective of looking down on them. This is probably because that is the angle in which we (including the artist) observe their own feet, and therefore would be more greatly recognised. Religious and spiritual iconography dominated the art scene in the earliest examples of art across all areas of the world as spirits, gods and the divine was how early humanity understood the world and how it works. As such, rather than using the canvass to depict accurate space between the subjects, the space on the canvass was used to show the space between earth and heavenly objects. The examples show the holy figures at the top of the images and have been painted much larger than the earthly figures.
Linear Perspective
It was only in the early 15th Century, during the Renaissance period, that the mathematical rules for perspective were defined. Renaissance, a French word meaning “Rebirth”, was a period when artists, who during the Middle Ages focused their artistic intentions towards religious iconography, “turned their attention to the beauty and mystery of the natural world and to the individual man” [Cristina Motta, https://useum.org/exhibition/curated/Renaissance/What-is-Renaissance]. It was an era of science, mathematics and innovation, and the art being produced during this time period was no exception.
Linear perspective is defined as when an artist creates the "illusion of depth and space using relative size and position of a group of objects". More simply, "objects that are closer to the viewer appear to be larger, where objects that are further away appear to be smaller" ["Understanding linear perspective in art", https://www.invaluable.com/blog/understanding-linear-perspective-in-art/, Last updated: 08.07.19].
There are 3 elements required to create a linear perspective:
Orthogonals (also known as parallel lines)
Vanishing point
Horizon line
The horizon line is used to define the eyeline. It is then possible to define which items are larger or smaller by defining a position on that horizon line which will be the smallest point, or the vanashing point. With that identified,the orthogonal lines can branch out from the vanishing point.
Below is a diagram illustrating Filippo Brunelleschi’s linear perspective by 16th century architect Vredeman de Vries, via Professor Blanchard
Aerial or atmospheric perspective
Aerial or atmospheric perspective describes the affect that the atmosphere has on distance. When observing a view at a vast distance, the distance objects can begin to appear hazy and less tonally diverse. This is because the light reflected from the distant items can not be focused by the eye which means there is much less definition observed by the eye.
Artists can use this form of perspective to create the feeling of depth within a piece of work, by reducing the definition and colour palette of objects that are to appear in the distance.
The work below by William Ratcliffe -Hampstead Garden Suburb from Willifield Way (c.1914) is a great example of how an artist can use both linear perspective and aerial perspective to create the sense of 3D depth. The street in the centre of the work is narrowing towards the horizon line and vanishing point. The landscape and buildings above the horizon line are painted in muted to tones that almost blend into the sky, making them appear to be much further away.
Modernism and subversion of perspective
The Tate defines the Modernism art movement as the "rejection of history and conservative values (such as realistic depiction of subjects); innovation and experimentation with form (the shapes, colours and lines that make up the work) with a tendency to abstraction; and an emphasis on materials, techniques and processes." ["Modernism", https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/m/modernism ]
As part of this rejection of the rules and values that governed previous eras in art history, artists started to experiment and subvert the mathematical absolutes of depicting perspective. Cubism is the perfect example of an art movement within Modernism that plays with the concept of perspective.
Cubism, which emerged in France in the early 20th century, has 4 core characteristics:
Monochromatic colour palette
Geometric shapes
Flattened picture plane
Multiple perspectives
[Amy Meleca MA, "4 characteristics of Cubism and why they are important", https://www.artlex.com/art-movements/cubism/characteristics/#:~:text=Art%20Movements%20%2F%20By%20Amy%20Meleca,and%20a%20flattened%20picture%20plane]
The last 2 characteristics are what subverts mathematical absolutes of perspective.
In the example of Juan Gris’ work, Houses in Paris (Maisons à Paris), (1911) seen below, the artist has shown the house from multiple angles whilst still keeping a 2 dimensional / flat feel to the work. It has resulted in a somewhat warped impression of of the house, almost how one might interpret the house in a dreamlike state.
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